The ClassicalHeritage
Many of the positive elements of humanism come from the Greco-Roman world. The Greeks were traders and travelers, and they gathered much from older civilizations, but their original contributions to philosophy and science were nevertheless outstanding. The Romans assimilated Greek culture and spread it further through their conquests. They also made some original contributions in Medicine, Law and Engineering.
Many of the positive elements of humanism come from the Greco-Roman world. The Greeks were traders and travelers, and they gathered much from older civilizations, but their original contributions to philosophy and science were nevertheless outstanding. The Romans assimilated Greek culture and spread it further through their conquests. They also made some original contributions in Medicine, Law and Engineering.
The Greek and Roman thinkers were aware of the value of a liberal education in developing the human spirit. The Roman Cicero was the one who best developed this theme. In Pro Archia, which was a defense of the social utility of poetry, Cicero wrote of "the humanities and letters”, (studia humanitaties ac litterarum), which he saw as the subjects that should be studied in order to achieve man’s full potential.[1]
The Roman Empire was largely ruled by law, and some basic rights were guaranteed to all citizens, but this developed civilization was still capable of sponsoring the savagery of the gladiator games. The most important foundational contribution to what is best in Western Civilization came from the East. Compassion and the full sense of an inclusive community are Judeo-Christian contributions, emphasized in the teachings of Jesus.
Christianity and Community
During his lifetime Jesus selected a number of individuals to share in his ministry. They were individually called and they accepted the invitation. Discipleship was not a nebulous affiliation, but a concrete group of people that entered into a relationship with Jesus and with each other. The community of Jesus was united in love: "As I loved you, so you also should love one another. This is how all will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another.” (Gospel according to John,13:34-35)
During his lifetime Jesus selected a number of individuals to share in his ministry. They were individually called and they accepted the invitation. Discipleship was not a nebulous affiliation, but a concrete group of people that entered into a relationship with Jesus and with each other. The community of Jesus was united in love: "As I loved you, so you also should love one another. This is how all will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another.” (Gospel according to John,13:34-35)
The term used to denote the relationship among the members of the community is koinonia (communion, fellowship). In the practice of the Christian community this term meant the total concern for all the needs of all the members of the community. In his letters, Paul the apostle uses this term to refer to spiritual union (1 Cor 1:9) as well as well as compassion for material needs (Rom 15:26). These communities took care of the poor (2 Cor 8:14), provided hospitality to travelers (Rom 16:2), and generally comforted one another (1 Thes 5:11). But Christian groups did not retire to the desert as did another contemporary Jewish group, the Essenes. They remained in the cities, and their members continued to go about their ordinary lives, participating in the business life of these cities.
Medieval Humanism
As the Roman Empire became Christianized, some conflicts between Greco-Roman culture and Christian values became apparent, but in general, Christianity embraced and attempted to assimilate and harmonize this cultural heritage. The harmonization effort, however, was disrupted by the chaos resulting from the barbarian invasions, as Rome fell to the Visigoths in 476. The Western empire was gradually dismembered among the waves of invaders, and this left little opportunity for study of any kind, until the reign of Charlemagne, king of the Franks (768-800) and emperor (800-814), who brought some order to the West. Charlemagne decreed that schools should be opened at monasteries and cathedrals, and gradually, some interest in learning was reawakened.
As the Roman Empire became Christianized, some conflicts between Greco-Roman culture and Christian values became apparent, but in general, Christianity embraced and attempted to assimilate and harmonize this cultural heritage. The harmonization effort, however, was disrupted by the chaos resulting from the barbarian invasions, as Rome fell to the Visigoths in 476. The Western empire was gradually dismembered among the waves of invaders, and this left little opportunity for study of any kind, until the reign of Charlemagne, king of the Franks (768-800) and emperor (800-814), who brought some order to the West. Charlemagne decreed that schools should be opened at monasteries and cathedrals, and gradually, some interest in learning was reawakened.
Another surge of cultural interest occurred during the twelfth century, as a result of economic progress and of the dissemination of classical works that had been preserved in the Arab world. This was a century of optimism, based on the faith in the discovery of an ordered natural world, the efficacy of new technologies, and a new humanism. But this humanism was clearly a Christian humanism. The belief in an ordered cosmos was based on faith on its Creator, and the confidence in man is based on his dignity as the image of God. The men who developed this line of thinking were all clerics, and they were able to reconcile their academic or public careers with their religious commitments.
Paris school master William of Conches saw all work as the continuation of the creative work of God. Hugh of St. Victor, another master, orients education to moral action in the world: "that there may first come to its knowledge those things which moral earnestness will thereafter turn into action."[2] John of Salisbury, who studied under both William and Hugh, and later became bishop of Chartres, expresses his love of learning:
Although pleasurable in many ways, the pursuit of letters is especially fruitful because it excludes all annoyances stemming from differences of time and place, it draws friends into each other's presence, and it abolishes the situation in which things worth knowing are not experienced. Arts would have perished, laws would have disappeared, faith and all religious duties whatsoever would have shattered, and even the correct use of eloquence would have declined, save that divine compassion granted to mortals the use of letters as a remedy for human infirmity.[3]
The First Universities
During the early twelfth century some cathedral schools began to distinguish themselves based on the reputation of their masters, and they attracted students from all of Europe. There were several schools in Paris, but they were not very important before the twelfth century, when, along with the growth of the French monarchy and the city itself, these schools rose to the forefront of European education. After the middle of the century, the number of masters and students in Paris required some sort of organization. The masters took the lead on this, and regulations were established on curriculum and length of study. A similar development took place at Bologna, another important urban center, except that at Bologna the students took the leadership. These chartered schools at Paris and Bologna are considered to be the first universities.
During the early twelfth century some cathedral schools began to distinguish themselves based on the reputation of their masters, and they attracted students from all of Europe. There were several schools in Paris, but they were not very important before the twelfth century, when, along with the growth of the French monarchy and the city itself, these schools rose to the forefront of European education. After the middle of the century, the number of masters and students in Paris required some sort of organization. The masters took the lead on this, and regulations were established on curriculum and length of study. A similar development took place at Bologna, another important urban center, except that at Bologna the students took the leadership. These chartered schools at Paris and Bologna are considered to be the first universities.
References:
[1] Charles G. Nauert, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe,(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 12.
[2] Hugh of St. Victor, The Didascalicon (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 50.
[3] John of Salisbury, Policraticus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 3.
[1] Charles G. Nauert, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe,(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 12.
[2] Hugh of St. Victor, The Didascalicon (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 50.
[3] John of Salisbury, Policraticus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 3.
